Toward a comprehensive understanding of adaptive and maladaptive parenting and developmental outcomes

Understanding why some children embark on positive, adaptive, competent developmental paths and others develop a variety of difficulties has been a key question in developmental psychology. An influential model – known as an ecological perspective – has emphasized a complex set of important factors. That perspective incorporates characteristics of the parent, quality of parenting, and child-specific characteristics in understanding children’s developmental outcomes (Belsky, 1984; Taraban & Shaw, 2018). This dissertation addressed three questions where gaps remain. In Aim 1, we examined the role of parental affective psychopathology (i.e., depression and anxiety) in parenting, and child outcomes. In Aim 2, we focused on child characteristics and future outcomes. In Aim 3, we examined the role of the early dyadic, positive parent-child relationships. We drew from two datasets: Family Study, community mothers, fathers, and children, from 2 to 12 years (N = 102, 51 girls), and Play Study, low-income mothers and children, from 2.5 to 7 years (N = 186, 90 girls).

Depression and anxiety are distinct forms of parental psychopathology, but they are highly correlated due to a factor they share – negative emotionality (Clark & Watson, 1991). Most studies have not examined unique effects of depression, anxiety, and negative emotionality on parenting. We addressed this question using data from Play Study. Depression and anxiety were measured at 2.5 years, and parenting (power-assertive control, intrusiveness, and positive affect) was measured at 3 and 3.5 years). Child behavior problems were measured at 7 years. Increased depression predicted increased power-assertive parenting, which predicted higher behavior problems. Only anxiety was associated with lower intrusiveness; however, intrusiveness did not predict child problems. Negative emotionality was not related to parenting, but it was associated with increased child problem behaviors.

Children’s antisocial, externalizing behavior problems are of great interest to psychologists. Recent research has demonstrated that they comprise various types of problems that may have distinct developmental precursors. One such construct, callous-unemotional (CU) traits, are characterized by decreased guilt, empathy, and fearlessness. In Aim 2, we examined how children’s low concern about transgressions and fearless temperament predicted CU traits versus other child behavior problems using data from Family Study. Children’s concern following transgressions and fearless temperament were observed in early childhood; parents reported on children’s CU traits and other behavior problems in middle childhood. A specific combination of low concern about transgressions and fearlessness predicted CU traits, but it did not predict other behavior problems, indicating a value of a nuanced approach to the issues of origins of behavioral difficulties.

Research on the parenting typically depicts it as a vaguely adversarial process, in which the parent uses varying amount of pressure to elicit child compliance. More recent perspectives coming from attachment theory, however, have redefined this process in more positive terms. Parent-child relationships can become positive and collaborative, with both partners willingly working together toward socialization goals, provided the presence of a secure, close attachment in the early years. Using Family and Play Studies, we investigated the links among children’s attachment at toddler age; child and parent receptive, willing stance with each other in early school age; and socio-emotional outcomes in middle to late childhood. Although the findings differed somewhat for mother- and father-child relationships, in both dyads, secure attachment predicted increased receptive, willing stances, which, in turn, predicted better, more positive child outcomes.