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Model-based and model-free valuation signals in the human brain vary markedly in relation to individual differences in behavioral control
Journal article   Open access   Peer reviewed

Model-based and model-free valuation signals in the human brain vary markedly in relation to individual differences in behavioral control

Weilun Ding, Jeffrey Cockburn, Julia Pia Simon, Amogh Johri, Scarlet J. Cho, Sarah Oh, Jamie D. Feusner, Reza Tadayonnejad and John P. O’Doherty
Cell reports (Cambridge), Vol.45(6), 117454
06/01/2026
DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2026.117454
PMID: 42228569
url
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2026.117454View
Published (Version of record) Open Access

Abstract

Human action selection under reinforcement is believed to rely on two distinct strategies: model-free and model-based reinforcement learning. While behavior in sequential decision-making tasks often reflects a mixture of both, the neural basis of individual differences in their expression remains unclear. Here, we conduct a large-scale fMRI study with 179 participants performing a variant of the two-step task. Using both cluster-defined subgroups and computational parameter estimates, we find that in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, model-based value signals are strongly linked to the degree of model-based behavioral reliance, whereas model-free signals are ubiquitous across individuals regardless of model-free behavioral influence. Individuals lacking model-based behaviors and model-based neural signals, exhibit impaired state prediction errors (a key signal for learning a model of the environment) in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and intraparietal sulcus, suggesting that reduced model-based control may depend in part on underlying difficulties in forming accurate model-based predictions. [Display omitted] •A large-scale fMRI study to investigate behavioral strategy use and the neural correlates•Model-based neural signals are tightly coupled to the degree of use of a model-based strategy•Model-free signals are present irrespective of which strategy a person uses to drive behavior•Reduced model-based control might result from difficulties in model learning or updating In this large-scale fMRI study, Ding et al. report that while model-based signals in ventromedial prefrontal cortex are tightly coupled to the degree to which individuals utilize a model-based strategy, model-free signals are present irrespective of which strategy an individual uses to drive behavior, suggesting the ubiquity of model-free control.
 decision value individual differences model-based model-free prediction errors reinforcement learning

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