Safe@Campus Virtual Reality Training for Campus Shooting Preparedness: Prototype Development and Usability Study

Jingzhen Yang; Hannah Schneider; Krista Wheeler; Lindsay Sullivan; Jason Wheeler; Brandon Abbott; David Schwebel

doi:10.2196/89471

Background: Campus shootings, though infrequent, result in significant loss of life, psychological trauma, and disruption to university communities. Traditional preparedness programs developed for K–12 settings do not translate well to university environments, which are larger, more open, and more complex. Virtual reality (VR) offers an immersive and engaging method to enhance situational awareness, decision-making, and confidence during high-stress events. To address gaps in university-specific firearm injury prevention training, we developed Safe@Campus, a VR-based intervention designed to help students recognize, prevent, and respond to campus shooting threats. Objective: This study described the development of the Safe@Campus VR prototype and evaluated its usability and feasibility among undergraduate students. Methods: We followed a two-phase, user-centered design process. Phase I—Design and Development: Through interviews with campus safety experts, firearm safety practitioners, school safety specialists, and students, we identified key content, scenario requirements, and implementation considerations. A 360-degree video–based VR prototype depicting an active shooter incident in a university classroom was developed using Unity3D, incorporating branching decision points aligned with the “Run, Hide, Fight” framework. Expert and user feedback guided iterative refinements. Phase II—Usability and Feasibility Testing: Two focus groups with undergraduates at The Ohio State University (N=17) viewed a VR scenario and then participated in guided discussions about prior training experiences, the acceptability of VR, and recommendations for improvement. Transcripts were analyzed using constant comparative methods in ATLAS.ti (version 25). Results: The first focus group included eight students (63% female; 33% White, 50% Asian/Asian American), and the second included nine students (67% female; 67% White). Across both groups, 82% reported participating in active shooter drills during K–12 schooling, yet many felt these experiences did not adequately prepare them for the complexity of university environments. Four major themes emerged: (1) Prior experience with active shooter drills: K–12 drills varied widely in realism and left students uncertain about appropriate actions in university settings; (2) Need for university-specific training: Participants noted substantial gaps in preparedness and expressed strong support for required, standardized training; (3) Perceived usefulness of VR: Students found VR highly engaging, realistic, and effective for reinforcing situational awareness and decision-making; and (4) Recommendations for prototype improvement: Students suggested increasing interactivity, adding time-pressured decisions, expanding scenarios to diverse campus spaces, and integrating the program into required university activities such as orientation. Conclusions: Safe@Campus is a feasible, engaging, and acceptable VR-based approach to campus shooting preparedness and prevention. Students viewed the immersive, decision-driven format as an effective way to build practical skills not addressed by traditional training. Future development should expand scenario diversity, increase interactivity, and evaluate program effectiveness in larger trials.

Safe@Campus Virtual Reality Training for Campus Shooting Preparedness: Prototype Development and Usability Study

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