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The interoceptive origin of reinforcement learning
Journal article   Open access   Peer reviewed

The interoceptive origin of reinforcement learning

Lilian A. Weber, Debbie M. Yee, Dana M. Small and Frederike H. Petzschner
Trends in cognitive sciences, Vol.29(9), pp.840-854
09/01/2025
DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2025.05.008
PMID: 40500611
url
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2025.05.008View
Published (Version of record) Open Access

Abstract

The reinforcing effects of food and fluids are driven by post-oral interoceptive primary reward signals, which reflect key physiological resources essential for sustaining life, such as energy, nutrients, and hydration.Primary rewards are accompanied by a cascade of earlier signals – secondary and proxy rewards – that facilitate learning and prospective control rather than sustaining reinforcement.Primary reward signals are dependent on internal states and goals.The traditional reinforcement learning framework needs to be extended to address the generation of state-dependent reward signals and their interaction with reinforcement learning mechanisms within biological brains. Rewards play a crucial role in sculpting all motivated behavior. Traditionally, research on reinforcement learning has centered on how rewards guide learning and decision-making. Here, we examine the origins of rewards themselves. Specifically, we discuss that the critical signal sustaining reinforcement for food is generated internally and subliminally during the process of digestion. As such, a shift in our understanding of primary rewards as an immediate sensory gratification to a state-dependent evaluation of an action’s impact on vital physiological processes is called for. We integrate this perspective into a revised reinforcement learning framework that recognizes the subliminal nature of biological rewards and their dependency on internal states and goals. Rewards play a crucial role in sculpting all motivated behavior. Traditionally, research on reinforcement learning has centered on how rewards guide learning and decision-making. Here, we examine the origins of rewards themselves. Specifically, we discuss that the critical signal sustaining reinforcement for food is generated internally and subliminally during the process of digestion. As such, a shift in our understanding of primary rewards as an immediate sensory gratification to a state-dependent evaluation of an action’s impact on vital physiological processes is called for. We integrate this perspective into a revised reinforcement learning framework that recognizes the subliminal nature of biological rewards and their dependency on internal states and goals.
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